Firm Behavior under Consumer Loss Aversion
JEL Classification: D03, D21, D42, D43, L12, L13, M52
Abstract
This survey aims to provide an overview of recent developments in the industrial organization literature that explores the behavior of profit-maximizing firms facing consumers with reference-dependent preferences and loss aversion. We discuss the implications of loss aversion on the practice of price discrimination, product differentiation, and incentive provision, among others. A common theme is emerging from these studies: consumer loss aversion may serve to limit the benefits from complex firm strategies that depend on the realizations of uncertainty.
Keywords:
Survey, Reference-dependent preferences, Loss aversion, Personal equilibrium, Monopoly pricing, Price discrimination, Product differentiation, Agency problemAcknowledgments
We would like to thank Jong-Hee Hahn and Jinwoo Kim for their helpful comments. This research was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea Grant funded by the Korean Government (NRF-2011-327-B00094).
References
- Abeler, J., A. Falk, L. Götte, and D. Huffman. “Reference Points and Effort Provision.” American Economic Review 101 (No. 2 2011): 470-92. [https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.101.2.470]
- Bell, D. E. “Disappointment in Decision Making under Uncertainty.” Operations Research 33 (No. 1 1985): 1-27. [https://doi.org/10.1287/opre.33.1.1]
- Benartzi, S., and R. H. Thaler. “Myopic Loss Aversion and the Equity Premium Puzzle.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 110 (No. 1 1995): 73-92. [https://doi.org/10.2307/2118511]
- Camerer, C. F., “Behavioral Economics.” In R. Blundell, W. K. Newey and T. Persson (eds.), Advances in Economics and Econometrics: Theory and Applications, Ninth World Congress, Vol. II, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
- Carbajal J. C., and Ely, J. “A Model of Price Discrimination under Loss Aversion and State-Contingent Reference Points.” Mimeograph, 2013.
- Card, D., and G. B. Dahl. “Family Violence and Football: The Effect of Unexpected Emotional Cues on Violent Behavior.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 126 (No. 1 2011): 103-43. [https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjr001]
- Courty, P. “An Economic Guide to Ticket Pricing in the Entertainment Industry.” Recherches Économiques de Louvain 66 (No. 2 2000): 167-92.
- Crawford, V. P., and J. Meng. “New York City Cabdrivers’ Labor Supply Revisited: Reference-Dependent Preferences with Rational-Expectations Targets for Hours and Income.” American Economic Review 101 (No. 5 2011): 1912-32. [https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.101.5.1912]
- De Meza, D., and D. C. Webb. “Incentive Design under Loss Aversion.” Journal of the European Economic Association 5 (No. 1 2007): 66-92. [https://doi.org/10.1162/JEEA.2007.5.1.66]
- Dixit, A., and J. Stiglitz. “Monopolistic Competition and Optimum Product Diversity.” American Economic Review 67 (No. 3 1977): 297-308.
- Eisenhuth, R. “Auction Design with Loss Averse Bidders: The Optimality of All Pay Mechanisms.” Mimeograph, 2010.
- Eliaz, K., and R. Spiegler. “Reference Dependence and Labor-Market Fluctuations.” forthcoming in NBER Macroeconomics Annual, 2013. [https://doi.org/10.3386/w19085]
- Ellison, G. “Bounded Rationality in Industrial Organization.” In R. Blundell, W. K. Newey, and T. Persson (eds.), Advances in Economics and Econometrics: Theory and Applications, Ninth World Congress, Vol. II, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
- Ericson, K. M. M., and A. Fuster. “Expectations as Endowments: Evidence on Reference-Dependent Preferences from Exchange and Valuation Experiments.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 126 (No. 4 2011): 1879-907. [https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjr034]
- Genesove, D., and C. Mayer. “Loss Aversion and Seller Behavior: Evidence from the Housing Market.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 116 (No. 4 2001): 1233-60. [https://doi.org/10.1162/003355301753265561]
- Gill, D., and V. Prowse. “A Structural Analysis of Disappointment Aversion in a Real Effort Competition.” American Economic Review 102 (No. 1 2012): 469-503. [https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.102.1.469]
- Grillo, E. “Reference Dependence, Risky Projects and Credible Information Transmission.” Mimeograph, 2013.
- Gul, F. “A Theory of Disappointment Aversion.” Econometrica 59 (No. 3 1991): 667-86. [https://doi.org/10.2307/2938223]
- Hahn, J-H., J. Kim, S-H. Kim, and J. Lee. “Price Discrimination with Loss Averse Consumers.” Mimeograph, 2014. [https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2587619]
- Heidhues, P., and B. Kőszegi. “The Impact of Consumer Loss Aversion on Pricing.” Mimeograph, 2005. [https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.658002]
- Heidhues, P., and B. Kőszegi. “Competition and Price Variation when Consumers are Loss Averse.” American Economic Review 98 (No. 4 2008): 1245-68. [https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.98.4.1245]
- Heidhues, P., and B. Kőszegi. “Regular Prices and Sales.” Theoretical Economics 9 (No. 1 2014): 217-51. [https://doi.org/10.3982/te1274]
- Herweg, F., and K. Mierendorff. “Uncertain Demand, Consumer Loss Aversion, and Flat-Rate Tariffs.” Journal of the European Economic Association 11 (No. 2 2013): 399-432. [https://doi.org/10.1111/jeea.12004]
- Herweg, F., D. Müller, and P. Weinschenk. “Binary Payment Schemes: Moral Hazard and Loss Aversion.” American Economic Review 100 (No. 5 2010): 2451-77. [https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.100.5.2451]
- Kahneman, D. J., and A. Tversky. “Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision under Risk.” Econometrica 47 (No. 2 1979): 263-91. [https://doi.org/10.2307/1914185]
- Kahneman, D., J. L. Knetsch, and R. H. Thaler. “Experimental Tests of the Endowment Effect and the Coase Theorem.” Journal of Political Economy 98 (No. 6 1990): 1325-48. [https://doi.org/10.1086/261737]
- Karle, H., and M. Peitz. “Competition under Consumer Loss Aversion.” RAND Journal of Economics 45 (No. 1 2014): 1-31. [https://doi.org/10.1111/1756-2171.12040]
- Kőszegi, B. “Behavioral Contract Theory.” forthcoming in Journal of Economic Literature, 2013.
- Kőszegi, B., and M. Rabin. “A Model of Reference-Dependent Preferences.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 121 (No. 4 2006): 1133-65. [https://doi.org/10.1162/qjec.121.4.1133]
- Kőszegi, B., and M. Rabin. “Reference-Dependent Risk Attitudes.” American Economic Review 97 (No. 4 2007): 1047-73. [https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.97.4.1047]
- Kőszegi, B., and M. Rabin. “Reference-Dependent Consumption Plans.” American Economic Review 99 (No. 3 2009): 909-36. [https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.99.3.909]
- Loomes, G., and R. Sugden. “Disappointment and Dynamic Consistency in Choice under Uncertainty.” Review of Economic Studies 53 (No. 2 1986): 271-82. [https://doi.org/10.2307/2297651]
- Mazumdar, T., S. Raj, and I. Sinha. “Reference Price Research: Review and Propositions.” Journal of Marketing 69 (No. 4 2005): 84-102. [https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkg.2005.69.4.84]
- Mas, A. “Pay, Reference Points, and Police Performance.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 121 (No. 3 2006): 783-821. [https://doi.org/10.1162/qjec.121.3.783]
- Macera, R. “Intertemporal Incentives under Loss Aversion.” Mimeograph, 2012.
- Mussa, M., and S. Rosen. “Monopoly and Product Quality.” Journal of Economic Theory 18 (No. 2 1978): 301-17. [https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0531(78)90085-6]
- Pope, D. G., and M. E. Schweitzer. “Is Tiger Woods Loss Averse? Persistent Bias in the Face of Experience, Competition, and High Stakes.” American Economic Review 101 (No. 1 2011): 129-57. [https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.101.1.129]
- Rosato, A. “Selling Substitute Goods to Loss-Averse Consumers: Limited Availability, Bargains and Rip-offs.” Mimeograph, 2013.
- Shalev, J. “Loss Aversion Equilibrium.” International Journal of Game Theory 29 (No. 2 2000): 269-87. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s001820000038]
- Shimer, R. “The Cyclical Behavior of Equilibrium Unemployment and Vacancies.” American Economic Review 95 (No. 1 2005): 25-49. [https://doi.org/10.1257/0002828053828572]
- Spiegler, R. Bounded Rationality and Industrial Organization, New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. [https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195398717.001.0001]
- Spiegler, R. “Monopoly Pricing when Consumers are Antagonized by Unexpected Price Increases: A “Cover Version” of the Heidhues-Köszegi-Rabin Model.” Economic Theory 51 (No. 3 2012): 695-711. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s00199-011-0619-5]
- Spence, A. M. “Multi-Product Quantity-Dependent Prices and Profitability Constraints.” Review of Economic Studies 47 (No. 5 1980): 821-41. [https://doi.org/10.2307/2296915]
- Sprenger, C. “An Endowment Effect for Risk: Experimental Tests of Stochastic Reference Points.” Mimeograph, 2011.
- Thaler, R. H. “Toward a Positive Theory of Consumer Choice.” Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 1 (No. 1 1980): 39-60. [https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-2681(80)90051-7]
- Tversky, A., and D. Kahneman. “Loss Aversion in Riskless Choice: A Reference-Dependent Model.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 106 (No. 4 1991): 1039-61. [https://doi.org/10.2307/2937956]
- Zhou, Z. “Reference Dependence and Market Competition.” Journal of Economics and Management Strategy 20 (No. 4 2011): 1073-97. [https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-9134.2011.00309.x]